What Holds Up the Himalayas?

Scientists have discovered that a 100-year-old theory about Earth’s highest mountain range is wrong.

The Himalayas were formed when the Asian and Indian continents collided around 50 million years ago. Tibet was squeezed so hard it crumpled and shrank. Eventually, India slipped under the Eurasian tectonic plate, which doubled the thickness of Earth’s crust beneath the Himalayas and Tibet.

Until now, the theory has been that this extra-thick crust carries the weight of the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayas. In 1924, geologist Emile Argand published research showing the 2 crusts stacked on top of each other, stretching 45-50 miles (70-80 km) deep under Earth’s surface.

But researchers now say that rocks in the crust turn molten about 25 miles (40 km) down because of extreme temperatures. The lowermost layers become like yogurt, which won’t support a mountain.

New research says there is a piece of mantle sandwiched between the 2 crusts. The mantle is a layer that usually sits directly beneath the crust. Being denser than the crust, it doesn’t liquify at the same temperatures. The crust is buoyant, similar to an iceberg. It lifts higher the thicker it gets.

A computer simulation of the collision between the Asian and Indian continents showed that as the Indian crust began to liquify, blobs of it rose and attached to the base of the rigid outer layer. This means there is a rigid layer of mantle between the stacked crusts, which solidifies the structure beneath the Himalayas. While the 2 crusts give buoyancy to the region lifted, the mantle material provides mechanical strength.

Then the researchers compared their simulation with seismic data and information obtained from rocks. They found that the mantle sandwich matched previous evidence that Arnand’s theory couldn’t explain. Enigmatic observations are more easily explained with this model. This study presents strong evidence, but it is controversial because Arnaud’s theory has been widely adopted.

These results explain a number of geological oddities in the region. The scientists ran lots of simulations using different thicknesses for the layers, and they always got a bit of mantle sandwiched between the 2 crusts.

 

https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/world/the-geology-that-holds-up-the-himalayas-is-not-what-we-thought-scientists-discover/ar-AA1Ly8l6?ocid=hpmsn&cvid=58b796c6ff6143d886f6d7199af0640e&ei=51

Strange Metal Relic

An awe-inspiring metal column has perplexed experts for over a century.

The 1,600-year-old pillar stands amid the ruins of a world heritage-listed temple in Delhi. It’s made of iron, but it never rusts. Normally, iron is very susceptible to the elements and develops a coat of reddish-brown rust at the hint of water.

The pillar’s resistance to erosion has invited several theories over the years, but none of them could be proven. Only recently has it been discovered that the structure’s power is due to ancient Indians’ skills. Researchers have analyzed the pillar to work out its complex chemistry.

The towering column stands almost 24 feet tall. The base is around 16.4 inches in diameter and tapers to around 12 inches at the top, where an ornamental structure sits.

Despite being made of 6.5 tons of solid wrought iron, it was dragged across India several times over the centuries as spoils of battle.

Around 1333 AD, a Moroccan explorer was told the pillar was made of seven metals, but that no one knew what those seven metals were.

It has several inscriptions etched on its surface, the oldest of which is written in the ancient Indian language Brahmi and names a king called Chandra. Researchers say the style and form of the Sanskrit text suggest it was inscribed during the reign of King Chandragupta II Vikramaditya, who ruled the Gupta empire between 375 and 415 AD.

But what made the pillar so resistant?

Experts wrote that the pillar is a monument demonstrating the metallurgical and engineering skills of the ancient Indians, who purified their ironwork to a remarkable 98%. However, how they managed this was a closely guarded secret handed down through a family from generation to generation.

The heat used during these processes was not sufficient to melt the metal, so it was extracted as a soft spongy mass which was then hammered into the desired shape. Lumps of this spongy iron were laid out and repeatedly hammered to separate the mineral impurities, forming it into a sequence of ‘pancakes’. The heated iron pancakes were joined by hammering.

Microstructual analysis of this structure revealed a convergence of properties that resulted in the metal’s resistance to corrosion. It turns out the hammering did not remove the impurities evenly. It left a patchwork of tiny phosphorus-rich particles in the iron. This created a network of electrical conductors, which triggered certain chemical reactions.

The phosphorus present in the impurities are oxidized to phosphate. This acts as an inhibitor and promotes the formation of protective oxide films for preventing corrosion.

 

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